This commit adds pluggable consensus engines to go-ethereum. In short, it
introduces a generic consensus interface, and refactors the entire codebase to
use this interface.

* common/math: optimize PaddedBigBytes, use it more

name              old time/op    new time/op    delta
PaddedBigBytes-8    71.1ns ± 5%    46.1ns ± 1%  -35.15%  (p=0.000 n=20+19)

name              old alloc/op   new alloc/op   delta
PaddedBigBytes-8     48.0B ± 0%     32.0B ± 0%  -33.33%  (p=0.000 n=20+20)

* all: unify big.Int zero checks

Various checks were in use. This commit replaces them all with Int.Sign,
which is cheaper and less code.

eg templates:

    func before(x *big.Int) bool { return x.BitLen() == 0 }
    func after(x *big.Int) bool  { return x.Sign() == 0 }

    func before(x *big.Int) bool { return x.BitLen() > 0 }
    func after(x *big.Int) bool  { return x.Sign() != 0 }

    func before(x *big.Int) int { return x.Cmp(common.Big0) }
    func after(x *big.Int) int  { return x.Sign() }

* common/math, crypto/secp256k1: make ReadBits public in package math

Also tweak behaviour so colors are only enabled when stderr is a terminal.

* common: remove CurrencyToString

Move denomination values to params instead.

* common: delete dead code

* common: move big integer operations to common/math

This commit consolidates all big integer operations into common/math and
adds tests and documentation.

There should be no change in semantics for BigPow, BigMin, BigMax, S256,
U256, Exp and their behaviour is now locked in by tests.

The BigD, BytesToBig and Bytes2Big functions don't provide additional
value, all uses are replaced by new(big.Int).SetBytes().

BigToBytes is now called PaddedBigBytes, its minimum output size
parameter is now specified as the number of bytes instead of bits. The
single use of this function is in the EVM's MSTORE instruction.

Big and String2Big are replaced by ParseBig, which is slightly stricter.
It previously accepted leading zeros for hexadecimal inputs but treated
decimal inputs as octal if a leading zero digit was present.

ParseUint64 is used in places where String2Big was used to decode a
uint64.

The new functions MustParseBig and MustParseUint64 are now used in many
places where parsing errors were previously ignored.

* common: delete unused big integer variables

* accounts/abi: replace uses of BytesToBig with use of encoding/binary

* common: remove BytesToBig

* common: remove Bytes2Big

* common: remove BigTrue

* cmd/utils: add BigFlag and use it for error-checked integer flags

While here, remove environment variable processing for DirectoryFlag
because we don't use it.

* core: add missing error checks in genesis block parser

* common: remove String2Big

* cmd/evm: use utils.BigFlag

* common/math: check for 256 bit overflow in ParseBig

This is supposed to prevent silent overflow/truncation of values in the
genesis block JSON. Without this check, a genesis block that set a
balance larger than 256 bits would lead to weird behaviour in the VM.

* cmd/utils: fixup import

Removed exported statedb object accessors, reducing the chance for nasty
bugs to creep in. It's also ugly and unnecessary to have these methods.

Reworked the EVM gas instructions to use 64bit integers rather than
arbitrary size big ints. All gas operations, be it additions,
multiplications or divisions, are checked and guarded against 64 bit
integer overflows.

In additon, most of the protocol paramaters in the params package have
been converted to uint64 and are now constants rather than variables.

* common/math: added overflow check ops
* core: vmenv, env renamed to evm
* eth, internal/ethapi, les: unmetered eth_call and cancel methods
* core/vm: implemented big.Int pool for evm instructions
* core/vm: unexported intPool methods & verification methods
* core/vm: added memoryGasCost overflow check and test

This reverts commit 8b57c494.

Reworked the EVM gas instructions to use 64bit integers rather than
arbitrary size big ints. All gas operations, be it additions,
multiplications or divisions, are checked and guarded against 64 bit
integer overflows.

In additon, most of the protocol paramaters in the params package have
been converted to uint64 and are now constants rather than variables.

* common/math: added overflow check ops
* core: vmenv, env renamed to evm
* eth, internal/ethapi, les: unmetered eth_call and cancel methods
* core/vm: implemented big.Int pool for evm instructions
* core/vm: unexported intPool methods & verification methods
* core/vm: added memoryGasCost overflow check and test

This significantly reduces the dependency closure of ethclient, which no
longer depends on core/vm as of this change.

All uses of vm.Logs are replaced by []*types.Log. NewLog is gone too,
the constructor simply returned a literal.

The run loop, which previously contained custom opcode executes have been
removed and has been simplified to a few checks.

Each operation consists of 4 elements: execution function, gas cost function,
stack validation function and memory size function. The execution function
implements the operation's runtime behaviour, the gas cost function implements
the operation gas costs function and greatly depends on the memory and stack,
the stack validation function validates the stack and makes sure that enough
items can be popped off and pushed on and the memory size function calculates
the memory required for the operation and returns it.

This commit also allows the EVM to go unmetered. This is helpful for offline
operations such as contract calls.

Environment is now a struct (not an interface). This
reduces a lot of tech-debt throughout the codebase where a virtual
machine environment had to be implemented in order to test or run it.

The new environment is suitable to be used en the json tests, core
consensus and light client.

Implemented proper touch revert journal entries and copied a Parity
consensus bug in order to remain in sync with the current longest chain.

This commit implements EIP158 part 1, 2, 3 & 4

1. If an account is empty it's no longer written to the trie. An empty
  account is defined as (balance=0, nonce=0, storage=0, code=0).
2. Delete an empty account if it's touched
3. An empty account is redefined as either non-existent or empty.
4. Zero value calls and zero value suicides no longer consume the 25k
  reation costs.

params: moved core/config to params

Signed-off-by: Jeffrey Wilcke <jeffrey@ethereum.org>

This implements 1b & 1c of EIP150 by adding a new GasTable which must be
returned from the RuleSet config method. This table is used to determine
the gas prices for the current epoch.

Please note that when the CreateBySuicide gas price is set it is assumed
that we're in the new epoch phase.

In addition this PR will serve as temporary basis while refactorisation
in being done in the EVM64 PR, which will substentially overhaul the gas
price code.

Two new tests are skipped because they're buggy. Making some newer
random state tests work required implementing the 'compressed return
value encoding'.

This commit replaces the deep-copy based state revert mechanism with a
linear complexity journal. This commit also hides several internal
StateDB methods to limit the number of ways in which calling code can
use the journal incorrectly.

As usual consultation and bug fixes to the initial implementation were
provided by @karalabe, @obscuren and @Arachnid. Thank you!

This change introduces a global, per-state cache that keeps account data
in the canon state. Thanks to @karalabe for lots of fixes.

This CL makes several refactors:
 - Define a Tracer interface, implementing the `CaptureState` method
 - Add the VM environment as the first argument of
   `Tracer.CaptureState`
 - Rename existing functionality `StructLogger` an make it an
   implementation of `Tracer`
 - Delete `StructLogCollector` and make `StructLogger` collect the logs
   directly
 - Change all callers to use the new `StructLogger` where necessary and
   extract logs from that.
 - Deletes the apparently obsolete and likely nonfunctional 'TraceCall'
   from the eth API.

Callers that only wish accumulated logs can use the `StructLogger`
implementation straightforwardly. Callers that wish to efficiently
capture VM traces and operate on them without excessive copying can now
implement the `Tracer` interface to receive VM state at each step and
do with it as they wish.

This CL also removes the accumulation of logs from the vm.Environment;
this was necessary as part of the refactor, but also simplifies it by
removing a responsibility that doesn't directly belong to the
Environment.

This reverts commit 7a5b571c.

This implements a generic approach to enabling soft forks by allowing
anyone to put in hashes of contracts that should not be interacted from.
This will help "The DAO" in their endevour to stop any whithdrawals from
any DAO contract by convincing the mining community to accept their code
hash.

We used to have reporting of bad blocks, but it was disabled
before the Frontier release. We need it back because users
are usually unable to provide the full RLP data of a bad
block when it occurs.

A shortcoming of this particular implementation is that the
origin peer is not tracked for blocks received during eth/63
sync. No origin peer info is still better than no report at
all though.